Virtual Reality in Education Across Cultures

A Narrative Review of Cultural, Pedagogical, and Ethical Dimensions

Abstract

Virtual Reality is increasingly used in education to support immersive, interactive, and experiential learning. However, its adoption is influenced not only by technological capabilities but also by cultural expectations, pedagogical traditions, infrastructural conditions, and ethical considerations. This narrative review examines how these dimensions interact across diverse educational con- texts and explores their implications for culturally responsive and responsible VR implementation. The review synthesised interdisciplinary literature identified through searches of Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, SpringerLink, and Google Scholar, focusing primarily on publications from 2009 to 2024. Relevant literature addressing VR or immersive technologies in education and their cul- tural, pedagogical, technological, infrastructural, or ethical dimensions was the- matically organised and mapped to four research questions. The findings indicate that VR adoption and learning experiences are context-dependent rather than uni- versally consistent. Cultural frameworks can provide useful interpretive perspec- tives on learner expectations, interaction, autonomy, and collaboration, but should not be treated as deterministic predictors of individual behaviour. Peda- gogical alignment, institutional readiness, technological accessibility, educator preparedness, learner well-being, and responsible governance are also important considerations. Overall, the review supports a context-sensitive approach to VR in education that aligns cultural, pedagogical, technological, institutional, and ethical considerations.